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• 23:29, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Reductio ad Absurdum (Created page with ";'''§4.7''' ''“Reductio ad absurdum”'' (“reductio” for short) is Latin for “reduction to absurdity”. It refers to the strategy of proving a proposition false by deducing an absurd conclusion (often a contradiction) from it in conjunction with other known premises. Such arguments are common in math. They were used to prove that the square root of two is not a rational number (and thus that there are such things as irrational numbers) and that there is no larg...")
• 23:28, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Tablefive.png
• 23:28, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Tablefive.png
• 23:23, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Analogical Argument (Created page with "An analogy is a likeness between things, and an analogical argument is one that exploits an analogy to infer something about one of the like items from premises about the other. For example, if you know that Socrates was sentenced to death, and that Bertrand Russell is like Socrates, you might infer either that Bertrand Russell was sentenced to death or (more plausibly) that something ''like'' being sentenced to death happened to Russell. As stated, neither of the two...")
• 23:10, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Inference to the Best Explanation (Created page with "When you look at a patch of ground and see regularly spaced shoe-shaped impressions in the pattern that we call “foot-prints”, you immediately infer that someone walked there. What argument are you using? Perhaps this one: thumb|center|500px This is a valid deductive argument, but P3 is false. There are other things that could cause such a pattern of impressions in the ground. For example, a machine could easily be made that could do the task. O...")
• 23:07, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Tablefour.png
• 23:07, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Tablefour.png
• 23:06, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Tablethree.png
• 23:06, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Tablethree.png
• 23:04, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Tabletwo.png
• 23:04, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Tabletwo.png
• 23:02, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Statistical Generalization (Created page with "A statistical generalization infers a conclusion about the proportion of members of a subject kind have a certain predicate, from knowledge about the proportion of subject-members in a sample group that have the relevant predicate. For example: {| class="wikitable" | Map 41: |- |[https://app.reasonspace.com/maps/1478?token=41804760-1661-42e4-9c4c-c0628a7f964e https://app.reasonspace.com/arguments/1053/export?token=4cb257f6-6d9d-4dfc-9c3f-0cd6022d4823&target=active&dpi=1...")
• 22:59, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Induction (Created page with "An induction is an argument in which a universal conclusion pertaining to all objects of a certain sort is inferred from premises about particular objects of that sort. For example, you might infer from premises about particular men being mortal, to the conclusion that all men are mortal. It is either primarily or exclusively from induction that we acquire the universal knowledge that then gets applied in deductions. However, whereas deduction is well understood, the n...")
• 22:52, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Arguments Applying Statistics (Created page with ";'''§4.2''' Consider the following argument, and let’s assume that the premises are certain: {| class="wikitable" | Map 40a: |- |[https://app.reasonspace.com/maps/1478?token=41804760-1661-42e4-9c4c-c0628a7f964e https://app.reasonspace.com/arguments/1050/export?token=19c36c46-7352-40a5-8459-9b78237bd523&target=active&dpi=100&view=true&format=.png] |} If P1 said that all Frenchmen were Catholic the argument would be a valid deduction, but, as it stands, the argument is...")
• 22:45, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Tableone.png
• 22:45, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Tableone.png
• 22:00, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Map12ofii.png
• 22:00, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Map12ofii.png
• 21:36, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:ArgumentParticles.png
• 21:36, 17 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:ArgumentParticles.png
• 15:27, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Combining Multiple Arguments for the Same Proposition (Created page with ";'''§5.3''' When you have multiple arguments for the same proposition, first assess each individually. If any of them taken by itself establishes the proposition as certain, then the proposition is certain, regardless of the quality of the others. In some cases, when multiple arguments each independently establish a conclusion as possible or probable, their force can add up, making the conclusion more and more probable, and ultimately certain. This is pattern of reas...")
• 15:25, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Assessing Arguments for Incompatible Conclusions (Created page with ";'''§5.2''' We have been discussing why refutations of propositions are not needed (though they are sometimes possible) once the arguments in favor of a proposition have been refuted. But how should we assess a conclusion when we have two arguments one for it and one against, neither of which have been refuted. There are two ways in which this situation can come about. First, someone who denies the conclusion of an argument might present an independent argument against...")
• 15:24, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Refutations of Arguments (and the Burden of Proof Principle) (Created page with ";'''§5.1''' It is important to distinguish between refutations of arguments and refutations of propositions. A refutation ''of a proposition'' is a proof (or attempted proof) that the proposition is false. A refutation ''of an argument'' is a proof that the argument does not actually support its conclusion. The word “refutation” is usually reserved for cases in which the falsehood of the proposition or the badness of the argument is established ''conclusively''. Th...")
• 15:19, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Assessing Conclusions in Light of Multiple Arguments (Created page with "A proposition is unfounded unless we have some reason to believe it, and unless it is the sort of proposition that we can know to be true by direct observation or in some other way, we only have reason to believe it if we have an argument for it. Let us put aside the propositions that we can know independent of argument and consider what epistemic status propositions that require arguments have in different circumstances. We have already said that such propositions...")
• 15:16, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Glossary of Key Terms from §3 (Created page with "*'''unfounded''' – the epistemic status of a proposition for which there is no reason to believe *'''possible''' – the epistemic status of a proposition for which there is reason to believe *'''probable''' – the epistemic status of a proposition for which there is enough evidence to establish that it is more likely to be true than false *'''certain''' – the epistemic status of a proposition for which the evidence supports beyond a reasonable doubt *'''beg...")
• 15:13, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Map15(1).png
• 15:13, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Map15(1).png
• 15:11, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page The Structure of Knowledge and the Danger of Circular Reasoning (Created page with ";'''§3.4''' Because we can acquire knowledge by inference, our knowledge of some things depends on our knowledge of others. If, to return to an earlier example, we know that Natalie murdered Carl, because we know that the murderer had access to his rose garden and that only she had such access, then our knowledge that she is the murderer depends on our knowledge of these two premises. The same pattern holds for lower epistemic statuses. If it were merely probable that...")
• 15:11, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map14.png
• 15:11, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map14.png
• 15:06, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map13.png
• 15:06, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map13.png
• 15:03, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:EpistemicStatusDetailed.png
• 15:03, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:EpistemicStatusDetailed.png
• 14:56, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page The Epistemic Statuses: Certainty, Probability, Possibility, and Arbitrariness (Created page with ";'''§3.3''' thumb|right|600px In evaluating arguments, it is necessary to determine the epistemic status of each premise—where it falls along the scale running from ignorance to knowledge.")
• 14:46, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded a new version of File:Map15.png
• 14:44, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page The Continuum Between Knowledge and Ignorance (Created page with ";'''§3.2''' To get a sense of the continuum between knowing something and being wholly ignorant of it, it helps to consider some examples. Let’s start with the following scenario: While walking across the quad one day at 8:00am, you see someone at a distance whom you almost recognize as your acquaintance Bob, but you lose sight of him before you can be sure. If you had gotten a better look at the man and recognized him as Bob, then you would know that Bob was on the...")
• 14:43, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:Map15.png
• 14:43, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:Map15.png
• 14:40, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Epistemic Status as Relative to An Audience but Objective (Created page with ";'''§3.1''' To be known is to be known to ''someone'', and different people know different things. In an argument, premises are being offered to ''someone'' as a reason to accept some conclusion. Let’s call the person or people to whom an argument is being given the audience. Clearly, then, in assessing the premises of an argument, what we need to figure out is whether ''the audience knows them''—or, more generally, what their epistemic status is for the audience....")
• 14:35, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Assessing Premises (Created page with "An argument is only as good as its premises. Therefore, if the conclusion is to be known on the basis of the argument, then premises must themselves be known to be true. However, arguments from premises that are not quite known, can still give us reason to believe their conclusions. This is because there is a continuum of states between fully knowing something and being wholly ignorant of it. We can call each state along this continuum an epistemic status. An argument ca...")
• 14:30, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page Glossary of Key Terms from §1 (Created page with "*argument – a set of related propositions that is given as a reason for believing a further proposition '''compelling''' – said of any inference that is strong enough that it would establish its conclusion as knowledge, if its premises were known to be true. '''''conclusion''''' – a proposition that supported by an argument conclusive – said of an argument that is strong enough to establish its conclusion as knowledge. deduction – a kind of inference...")
• 14:27, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map8.png
• 14:27, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map8.png
• 14:26, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map2aa.png
• 14:26, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map2aa.png
• 14:23, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map3ee.png
• 14:23, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map3ee.png
• 14:22, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs created page File:V0Map3dd.png
• 14:22, 9 August 2022 Pooyamo talk contribs uploaded File:V0Map3dd.png

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